[...]

In the 18th century more and more talents found their way to foreign universities, to continue their studies under distinguished professors. Those of a poorer background could go abroad as the tutors, companions or friends of the children of the aristocracy. This was how Farkas Bolyai got to Göttingen, where Gauss, then a student, who was to be revered in a few years' time as the prince of mathematics, became his friend.

On his return Farkas Bolyai started teaching mathematics and physics at the Calvinist College at Marosvásárhely (Tuˆrgu Mures¸). Through the years he grew to be one of the luminaries in Hungarian mathematics, and the author of outstanding academic works and textbooks. In these he published his method for providing approximate solutions for certain algebraic equations, and set up a theorem on the possibility to slice two polygons of the same area into smaller polygons which can be arranged into congruent pairs. The question kept intriguing mathematicians for some time. Farkas Bolyai was a great mathematician, an outstanding teacher and a renowned inventor, who did not mind having had only one publication in the journal of the Hungarian Academy—and that was on wedding ceremonies in the Marosszék region in Transylvania. Nor did he mind his contemporaries taking more account of his plays than his mathematical findings.

His son, János Bolyai, partly followed in his father's tracks and gained, alas, similarly little acknowledgement in his lifetime, especially for his work on parallels. By 1823 he had tackled the problem, and formulated his findings under the title, The Absolutely True Science of Space. The 26-page essay came to be published in 1832 as an appendix to his father's two-volume textbook. In it János Bolyai pointed out that rejecting Euclid's fifth axiom concerning parallel lines could be the starting point for a different but wholly consistent—non-Euclidian—geometry, in which all the other axioms operate. Leaving aside the fifth axiom produces a so-called absolute geometry which includes the common elements of both geometries. One of the greatest insights of mathematics, it later became vital for Einstein's general theory of relativity.

In other papers János Bolyai clarified the geometrical role of complex numbers, wrote on musical theory, questions of philosophy and linguistics and, as a graduate of the Technische Hochschule in Vienna, he also dealt with issues of military science. He was not a well man and retired early to a farm in a small village, while continuing to be intrigued by universal problems. Portions of the vast collection of his manuscripts will become available to the public on the occasion of the coming bicentenary of his birth.

Gyula Farkas, working not far from the Bolyais' town, in Kolozsvár (Cluj)—where a university was founded in 1872—developed a method for linear programming, though his findings became useful only decades later. His contemporary, Gyula Vályi, became an expert in partial differential equations. Promising talents around 1900 were Zoárd Geöcze—who died at the age of 43 of an illness contracted during the First World War—and Győző Zemplén (who also died young in the battle line): the former was the founder of the modern theory of surface area calculation, while the latter was one of the greatest figures in modern physics at the time.

The 20th century was the golden age of mathematics in Hungary. Frigyes Riesz, founder of a school of mathematics associated with the University of Szeged, is honoured among mathematicians as the inventor of functional analysis, the method that unites analysis and geometry. The course and specialist books by his colleague, Béla Szőkefalvi-Nagy, student of analytic equations, are still widely quoted.

The studies of Lipót Fejér have also remained constant points of reference; his contribution to the theory of interpolation, especially the summability of Fourier series, was of great importance. Points of reference, that is, for those who are not baffled by such series: modern mathematics has for long been a field for the initiates. Fejér was one of them.

He was a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour, a member of the scientific societies of Göttingen and Calcutta, of the Bavarian and the Polish Academies, and despite his Jewish origin, even the Hungarian Academy of Sciences made him a member in 1908 (a gesture that was denied, a few years later, to John von Neumann.)

The organizers of the Chicago World Fair of 1933/34 invited and funded the visit of the four most famous European scientists. One of them was Lipót Fejér. Known as Uncle Lipi, a friend of the great poet Endre Ady, a teacher of the novelist Géza Ottlik and others, he founded a school of mathematics. His ideas are still relevant in the solution of new mathematical problems.

His contemporary, Alfréd Haar of Szeged was the developer of the system named after him; his theorem that a basic quality of the trigonometric orthogonal system is that the measure of an arc is invariant to the notation of the circle is considered one of his greatest findings.

Pál Dienes, an expert in power series, lived in England, and György Pólya, a student of complex analysis, probability calculus and the theory of inequality, made a name for himself in the United States. The latter's book in mathematical analysis, co-authored with Gábor Szegő, has become a bible in the profession. His witty, heuristic writings—also available in Hungarian—have helped many to understand the subtleties of rationalistic thinking.

Marcell Riesz lived in Sweden; as well as being the other major Hungarian name in function theory, he also excelled in trigonometric series and other "delicacies".

The 20th century, was a century of mathematics, and a century of Hungarian mathematicians. Mihály Fekete started his career as a substitute teacher at a Budapest secondary school, to land in 1928 at the University of Jerusalem as professor of mathematics; he taught there for forty years.

One of Fejér's doctoral students was probably the most original of Hungarian mathematicians, John von Neumann. He went to Princeton, where he made outstanding contributions to almost all branches of mathematics, from function analysis through quantum mechanics, continuous geometry, modern computer science, the modelling of the brain, to game theory. Computers used today are still of the Neumann-type, utilizing in their structure the principles he had laid down.

[...]

The oldest calendar printed in Hungary dates from 1568 and was produced in Kolozsvár. Ten years later a Besztercebánya (Banská Bistrica) press printed Pribicerus's pamphlet on a comet, and in 1578 a similar work came out from the Heltai printing press in Kolozsvár (Cluj). The following year also saw the appearance of a volume on comets, by András Dudith, the notable humanist who had studied in Padua, and whose daring to turn against superstition in 1570 was no small feat. He lived at the court of Stephen Báthory, Prince of Transylvania and King of Poland. So did an Italian, M. Squarcialupi, the king's physician, who also had an interest in comets and who, in 1581, published a work in Nagyszeben on polar lights. Another celestial phenomenon, meteor showers, was treated in the 1575 Chronicle of Gáspár Heltai.

The Gregorian Calendar was legally adopted here in 1588, six years after the papal bull.

The Protestants set up an astronomical observation post in Debrecen in 1740, with the help of György Maróthi, and a similar post was established in Sárospatak in 1755, to promote education at the College. Miklós Jánossi prepared plans for an observatory in Kolozsvár between 1734 and 1739, but construction at the Jesuit Academy was not started until 1753, to the plans of Miksa Hell, who then taught there, designed it. (Hell had taught at Lőcse and Zsolna, and in 1755 became director of the observatory at the University of Vienna.)

Also famous was the observatory in Eger, also designed by Miksa Hell and built in 1776. Its first director was János Madarassy. Hell was approached by the founder, Archbishop Károly Esterházy, and the illustrious astronomer, then living in Vienna, answered thus: "There is nothing I wish to do more than to serve my country as well as your Excellency in this manner."

In Gyulafehérvár (Alba Julia) it was Bishop Count Ignác Batthyány who established a major scientific collection in 1796, together with a small observatory. Earlier, in 1790, he had already built a private observation post in Kolozsvár. The Gyulafehérvár establishment was directed by a student of Hell's, Antal Mártonffy.

It should be clear that Miksa Hell, a Jesuit, had an important role in the establishment of almost all of the early observatories. He lived in Vienna for 32 years, and there published a number of famous Ephemerides, that is, almanacs. Venus was to pass before the Sun in 1769, and the Danish king invited him and János Sajnovics to make observations at Vardö. Their observations of 3 June helped them calculate the solar parallax, the distance of the Earth from the Sun. Their measurement was questioned by contemporaries, especially by Lalande, yet the accuracy of Hell's figures was later confirmed. It was an achievement that had the greatest international recognition of any during the classical phase of Hungarian astronomy.

Hell also developed a method for determining latitude which is still important. While in Scandinavia, the two Hungarians corrected several erroneously charted points on the coast of Norway. It was during this expedition that Sajnovics noticed similarities in the Hungarian and Lapp languages. Hell was interested in history, and wrote a work in which he attempted to identify place names in the first Hungarian chronicle, the 12th-century Chronicle of Anonymous. No easy task, as for instance Szíhalom near Eger appears in Anonymus as Zenuholmu. In 1772 he published his findings on a map, which was reprinted in 1801. One of the most knowledgeable astronomers of the 18th century, Miksa Hell was instrumental in the development of astronomy in Hungary.

In 1777, he helped in the planning of a new observatory in Buda. This belonged to the university, which had been transferred from Nagyszombat that year; it had a new department of Geometria practica, which gave basic instruction in astronomy to students of engineering. (Some of the instruments were left in the Nagyszombat Observatory, and Ferenc Bruna used these to make observations for some more years.)

[...]

The major names in physics

Proponents of Newtonian physics appeared quite early in Protestant and Piarist colleges, perhaps even earlier than at the Nagyszombat university. In Calvinist Debrecen, István Hatvani and György Maróthi became the "popes" of natural philosophy; they had encountered modern thought in the Netherlands, and spread it in colleges in Hungary. Johann Andreas von Segner (born János András Segner) also taught in Hungary for a short time, before settling abroad and becoming a noted professor at German universities, as well as the developer of a reaction turbine he described in 1750. The famous work in natural philosophy of István Hatvani, "the Debrecen Faust," also a physician, appeared in 1757. István Tőke's reformed physics was published by the Nagyenyed (Aiud) press in 1736. As for the Piarists, Kajetán Poór was teaching Newtonian physics in their Pest college at an early date.

As the above indicates, Newtonian-Leibnitzian mathematics and experimental physics had become fully accepted in Hungary by the middle of the 18th century —first at colleges and universities, and later in schools. This was experience-based natural philosophy relying on experiments; physics had thus triumphed over speculative natural science. And if the medium was initially Latin, the lingua franca of science at the time, in the process of physics becoming a specialized branch, Hungarian also came to be an acceptable means of expression.

The 1770s saw the appearance of the first works, especially of popular science, in Hungarian. Such was Benjámin Szőnyi's Gyermekek fisikája (Children's Physics, Pozsony, 1774), or A természetiekről. Newton tanítványinak nyomdoka szerént hat könyv (On Natural Phenomena. Six Volumes after Newton's Disciples), by an ex-Jesuit teaching in Győr, János Molnár.

The person who did most at the time for science at the university was József Ferenc Domin. Unlike his predecessors at the head of the physics department —he was also rector of the university in 1798—his interests lay not in mechanics but electricity, and he is held by many to have been a pioneer of electrotherapy. It is also worth noting that only one year after the Montgolfier brothers, on 1 March 1784, in Győr, he experimented with a hydrogen-filled balloon, which did not carry a passenger.

His successor, Ádám Tomcsányi, was professor of natural sciences until 1831, and like Domin, was a widely-educated scientist. He was the first in Hungary to be an expert on galvanism and he wrote a lengthy work on the topic. A year earlier Márton Varga had mentioned voltaic currents in his Hungarian volume, but Tomcsányi's treatment was far more thorough. He had another important volume, in geology, co-authored by Pál Kitaibel, discussing the 1810 earthquake in Mór.

After much argument and official wrangling, the physics department was taken over, in 1839, by Ányos Jedlik, whose inventions had earned him distinction at World Fairs. He retained the position until his retirement in 1878.

Jedlik's first important invention was an electromagnetic motor, the first such device in the world; since he failed to notify the international scholarly community in time, the first is now attributed to someone else. In 1828 he wrote to Ágost Heller: "When I prepared a working model of a device transferring voltaic power into rotary motion, in 1827–28, I could find no mention of such a device in journals."

Later he constructed a soda water machine, and established a small and successful firm (1841), which he passed on to his relatives. Another important invention was a device for making optical gratings, with which 150 grooves to the millimetre could be etched on glass plates. What really mattered was not the number of grooves but their uniformity, vital for spectroscopy. No other device could produce such fine gratings at the time.

In the 1850s he designed a battery for mass production of which he built a small factory, together with two partners. The patent was later bought from him by a French entrepreneur.

The invention the Hungarian public associates with his name is his unipolar dynamo. He built the first such device around 1860–61. It produced only a low voltage, and could not be used in industry. Siemens and others later constructed —independently of him—the version suitable for industrial use. Better known at the time were his capacitors, which he connected to create a storage battery. The invention was very successful at the 1873 Vienna World Fair.

As a teacher, he was a great experimenter, although the mathematics he used was rather simple. As Loránd Eötvös wrote, "it was without the necessary education, the support or guiding advice of those progressing in the same direction, but relying on his own resources and unflagging love for science that he became one of the inventors of the century." To which it should be added that he was one of the greatest inventors of the 19th century. Jedlik was succeeded by Loránd Eötvös from the 1878/79 academic year; he had been giving lectures in experimental physics since 1874, and he headed the department until his death.

The first field he achieved success in was capillarity. He published the results in the bulletin Mathematikai és Természettudományi Értesítő (Mathematical and Scientific Journal) only in 1884–85, which proved to be so important that now in the literature they are referred to as the "Eötvös Law." In these studies he pointed out that the molecular surface energy of various, so-called simply complex liquids changes in direct proportion to the change in temperature. The change, in other words, is independent of the quality of the matter and of temperature.

Another large field he studied, gravitation, involved theoretical considerations, as well as the development of reliable instruments, which Eötvös produced with great success. He examined gravitation with a balance like Cavendish's, and measured the earth's field of gravity with an improved version of Coulomb's torsion balance. Both instruments surpassed the accuracy of their predecessors. His ultimate achievement was his own torsion balance, with which a scientist could step out of laboratories and do field work, with well-known practical consequences.

It was also from the 1880s that he studied the relation of gravitational and inertial mass, a question Newton had tried to resolve but lacked a sufficient instrument. Eötvös set up a good hypothesis with his torsion balance by 1889, and by 1909 he had considerably increased the accuracy of the measurement. (Meanwhile, he published his study summarizing his findings on the gravitational field of Earth in 1896.) That the two masses are equivalent was assumed by Einstein as well, though at the time he developed his general theory of relativity he was unaware of Eötvös's exact figures. While Eötvös maintained the equality of the measures, Einstein was already considering the issue on a more abstract level, and was talking about the equivalence of the force fields. Eötvös's experiment is nevertheless important for proving the theory of relativity. (Einstein himself thought highly of Eötvös, of which the extant professional letters he sent him bear testimony.)

With a similar balance, but more like Cavendish's, by 1891 Eötvös had obtained the most accurate measurement of the gravitational constant, G. In this work he was assisted by Radó Kövesligethy and Károly Tangl.

Eötvös was essentially an experimental physicist, and if he was well aware of problems of theoretical physics, he was noncommittal in questions concerning them. Unfortunately, he did not create a school; though his geophysical experiments had many followers, as a teacher or theoretician of physics he had none.

The Budapest Technical University carried on the tradition of Mór Réthy, and Győző Zemplén's lectures treated all major topics in modern physics at the time. Lectures in theoretical physics at the Kolozsvár University were given by no less a scientist than Gyula Farkas; in 1915 he was followed by Rudolf Ortvay. Ortvay later had a distinguished career in Szeged and Budapest.

Experimental physics also had its great lecturers at these universities. In Budapest, before the First World War, Alajos Schuller and Ferenc Wittmann headed the experimental and technical physics department, respectively. (Schuller was succeeded by Károly Tangl in 1917). In Kolozsvár Tangl, and then Béla Pogány were professors of experimental physics.

At the Budapest University Science Faculty the physics taught became really up-to-date in the 1920s. Eötvös died in 1919. In 1921 a former student of his, then professor at the Technical University, Károly Tangl, was invited to be head of the experimental physics department. Students of theoretical physics were at long last introduced to modern developments, when Rudolf Ortvay, formerly teaching at Kolozsvár and Szeged, took over the department. These two professors were responsible for making this university, through the years between the world wars, a workshop where high-standard experimental and theoretical physics were taught. They were also instrumental in the publishing of textbooks and scholarly studies.

Tangl headed the experimental physics department until his death in 1940. He was followed by Professor Rybár (until 1949), whose own department was in turn taken over by György Békésy, who was later awarded the Nobel Prize. Ortvay too headed the Theoretical Physics Institute until his death in 1945. His department was probably the one that did most for the credit of the university.

Rudolf Ortvay followed the route marked by his predecessor, Győző Zemplén, who had died young (he was in effect his contemporary, being only six years his senior). On graduating, Ortvay undertook—as was customary at the time—a study trip abroad, and was lucky to work with Sommerfeld in Munich. The year being 1912, the first steps in quantum mechanics had hardly been taken: Bohr would publish his model and Stark discover the effect named after him in 1913, Franck and Hertz performed their experiment in 1914, and Sommerfeld did not introduce his own model until 1916.

Ortvay's great contribution to teaching was the introduction of duplicated notes. His summaries of quantum mechanics and electrodynamics were later collected and published in book form. His best-known work is his Bevezetés az anyag korpuszkuláris elméletébe (Introduction to the Corpuscular Theory of Matter), appeared in 1927. He was the first in Hungary to write a serious treatment of Einstein's general theory of relativity, and the quantum theory of the twenties. He is also remembered for a famous lecture series with such guests as Dirac, Bothe, Debye, Heisenberg, Bródy, Neumann, Polányi, Teller, Tisza, or Wigner. "A small university department tried to repair what the politicians of the country neglected," says a historian of the time. Not only politicians were to blame but also earlier professors of physics at the university.

The teaching of physics in Hungary suffered badly in the latter part of the period between the wars: the insane persecution of scientists of Jewish origin forced many to leave the country: Tódor Kármán, Kornél Lánczos, John von Neumann, Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner were the most notable. Others emigrated in subsequent years for other reasons; they include Zoltán Bay, György Békésy, Dénes Gábor, Nicholas Kürti and László Tisza. Wigner, Békésy, Gábor, Albert Szent-Györgyi, and György Hevesy were awarded Nobel Prizes. György Oláh, who left the country in 1956, received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1994.

Some of those who did not escape came to a sorry end: Béla Pogány, who did notable work in theoretical physics, Rezső Schmid in molecular spectroscopy, Pál Selényi and Loránd Gerő all died during the war. Imre Bródy, one of the inventors of krypton-filled light bulbs, died in a concentration camp in 1944.

[...]

The modern phase of Hungarian chemistry started somewhere in the middle of the 19th century, perhaps with János Irinyi, or even with an interesting experiment by Artúr Görgey. The latter, who was to command the Hungarian army during the 1848–49 War of Independence, briefly interrupted a military career to study chemistry in Prague. It was there, while studying coconut fat, that he discovered lauric acid. Unfortunately, little is known about the circumstances of the discovery. After the suppression of the revolution, Austrians were placed at the head of several departments at the Pest university. The chemistry department received a new head, after the Austrian Wertheim, in 1862; political considerations were put aside for the sake of Károly Than, who had been assistant lecturer at the University of Vienna since 1859, and had Bunsen as a referee.

Károly Than directed this department for 48 years, teaching modern chemistry to several generations of students, and not only chemists. Medical students and would-be teachers also became versed in the elements of the science. Than himself was knowledgeable in several branches of chemistry, including pharmaceutics, as he had studied medicine and pharmacy in Vienna. His knowledge persuaded the authorities to ignore his record in the 1848 War of Independence, and they did not object to the Hungarian Academy electing the 26-year-old scientist to be a corresponding member.

In 1864 Than suggested a new system for registering the composition of mineral waters, in the form of the determinable components, anions and cations. It became accepted only after ion theory was fully developed. Since then, Than equivalence has been the standard mode of denoting the composition of mineral waters. 1860 was the turn of Than salt, which has ever since been used to fine-tune the potency of analytical acidimeter solutions. He was the first in Hungary to write on spectroscopy, the elements of which he must have learnt in Bunsen's laboratory. In 1867 he discovered carbonyl-sulphide, for which he was awarded a prize by the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Perhaps his most important publication came in 1887, in which he defined the concept of the molecular volume of gases.

In 1877 the university started a second department of chemistry, under Béla Lengyel. His chief duty was to teach chemistry to pharmacy students, initially with rather limited facilities. Than himself taught medical students, and teacher trainees could choose between the lecturers. They both wrote textbooks, providing a sound basis for the teaching of modern chemistry.

Producing pure calcium and strontium was a remarkable feat at the time: Béla Lengyel and his assistants displayed the pure metals at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. Lengyel was among the first to notice radioactivity; Irén Götz, who later became Madame Curie's assistant in Paris, was his doctoral student. The first woman to earn a doctorate in chemistry was Laura Kovács, Than's student. The second, Thyra Breitner, had Gusztáv Buchböck for her tutor. Irén Götz was the third female doctoral student. She was born in Mosonmagyaróvár in 1889, attended secondary school in Budapest, and then went on to study at the University. She published several articles in Magyar Chemiai Folyóirat (Hungarian Chemistry Journal, which was founded by Than), before receiving a fellowship, with which she visited Madame Curie's laboratory, where there was another Hungarian, Béla Szilárd. It was in Paris that Irén Götz met the young librarian, László Dienes, who was there on a collection trip. They married, but Götz could not find a post on their return to Hungary. She received a university position only during the short-lived Communist regime of 1919, in April, when her husband was made a commissar. On the collapse of the regime, they had to flee. They went, via Vienna, to Kolozsvár, where in 1926 Dienes started Korunk, a journal that still exists, in which his wife could publish on Einstein and Madame Curie, the transformation of elements and the foundations of modern chemistry. Later they moved on to Berlin, and then to Moscow. They raised three children. After a show trial she was imprisoned, like many other Hungarian scientists living in the Soviet Union. She was released in 1941, but died shortly afterwards of typhoid. László Dienes survived these gruesome times, and returned to Budapest in 1945, where he became the director of the Metropolitan Library.

The first Hungarian journal specializing in chemistry, Vegytani Lapok (Chemical Papers), was founded by Rudolf Fabinyi, professor of chemistry at Kolozs vár University, in 1882. This, and the already mentioned Magyar Chemiai Folyóirat (1885) were only preceded by Vegyészet és Gyógyszerészet (Chemistry and Pharmacy).

A great achievement of the chemists of the 1880s was the construction of a giant battery, which could supply enough energy for street lighting; the battery was designed and built by István Schenek and István Farbaky of the Selmecbánya Academy. Lajos Ilosvay of the Budapest Technical University was the first to introduce ion-specific reagents to detect and specify nitrites, in 1889. In 1893 István Győri discovered the method of titration, used in chemical analysis ever since. Of Than's students, perhaps Lajos Winkler became the best known, as an expert in volumetric and gravimetric analysis, the developer of several analytic methods. Vince Wartha and Ignác Pfeifer developed a method for determining the hardness of water that was long to remain in use, while Wartha's eosin glaze helped to make Zsolnay ceramics world famous. Ignác Pfeifer became Wartha's successor at the head of the chemical technology department at the Technical University, and later headed the research laboratory of Egyesült Izzó (United Incandescent Co.), and was thus in no small part responsible for the worldwide success of the products of the company. István Bugarszky of the University invented the first endothermic galvanic cell in 1897. Pál Szily's report, which laid the foundations of colorimetric pH-metering, appeared in 1903. Gusztáv Buchböck published his method of examining the hydration of ions in 1906. Hungarian chemistry started producing internationally accepted results within a very short period after Károly Than took charge of the chemistry department in Budapest.

The Hungarian to make the greatest impact on chemistry in this period was György Hevesy. It was while working under Rutherford in Manchester that he became interested in radioactive isotopes. Through a series of experiments at the University of Vienna (1912), conducted together with G. Paneth, he developed the technique of using isotopes as tracers, opening the way for their wide use in science and medicine. His achievements were honoured with a Nobel Prize in 1943. In 1920 he made another important discovery: in Budapest, together with László Zechmeister, using his radioactive tracing method, they proved the intermolecular exchange of atoms, thus corroborating Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic dissociation.

After Ferenc Müller of Nagyszeben, Hevesy was the second Hungarian to discover an element: following Bohr's hint of an element missing from the periodic table, Hevesy and D. Coster found what they named hafnium in 1923. Hevesy also developed analytic methods such as isotopic dilution and X-ray fluorescent analysis, not to mention his contribution to neutron activation analysis.

Leó Szilárd, known primarily as a physicist, also worked in chemistry, and described a phenomenon of nuclear chemistry, which is now referred to as the Szilárd-Chalmers effect. Michael Polányi, who lived in Germany from the twenties on, before moving to England, also proved to be an eponym in chemistry (the Polányi Rule), discovering the relation between, on the one hand, the activation energy of reactions between radicals and molecules, and, on the other hand, reaction heat. He also gave his name to the absorption potential of gases. In the latter part of his life he became an important philosopher of science. His son, John, received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1986.

[...]

István Gazda
is Director of the Institute for the History of Hungarian Sciences and the author of more than 70 books on the history of science. He was responsible for putting together a major popular science television series of 500 hours on Hungarian State Television and is Chief Consultant to the Millennium Exhibitions and Events Centre opening this year.